Auteur moral

Plan bleu pour la Méditerranée

Auteur secondaire

Résumé

"Mediterranean urban and coastal areas face intensifying water challenges driven by climate change,urbanization, and ecosystem degradation. This paper explores the potential of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) as integrated, cost-effective, and socially inclusive responses to water-related risks.Drawing on six case studies across the region, it highlights the importance of embedding NbS withinpolicy and planning frameworks, fostering participatory governance, and ensuring long-term sustainability. Findings demonstrate that well-designed NbS can enhance resilience and deliver cumulative co-benefits for communities and ecosystems alike."

Editeur

Plan bleu pour la Méditerranée

Descripteur Urbamet

Descripteur écoplanete

milieu littoral ;retour d'expérience

Thème

Maritime ;Aménagement urbain ;Aménagement du territoire

Texte intégral

1 Urban and Coastal Water Management through Nature-Based Solutions LES NOTES DU PLAN BLEU51 JANUARY 26 Mediterranean urban and coastal areas face intensifying water challenges driven by climate change, urbanization, and ecosystem degradation. This paper explores the potential of Nature-based So- lutions (NbS) as integrated, cost-effective, and socially inclusive responses to water-related risks. Drawing on six case studies across the region, it highlights the importance of embedding NbS within policy and planning frameworks, fostering participatory governance, and ensuring long-term sustai- nability. Findings demonstrate that well-designed NbS can enhance resilience and deliver cumula- tive co-benefits for communities and ecosystems alike. 1- Water resources vulnerability in the Mediterranean In the context of climate change, rapid urbaniza- tion, and ecosystem degradation, water manage- ment in urban and coastal areas faces escalating challenges. Flash floods, water stress, and pollu- tion reveal the growing technical, economic, and environmental limits of conventional planning models. Around 60-70% of freshwater potential in the Mediterranean basin is located in northern areas, while only about 20%-30% lies in the South (Plan Bleu - RED2020, 2020). If current trends persist, up to 290 million people across the region could face 1 Less than 1,000 m3/capita/year (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). 2 Less than 500 m3/capita/year (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). 3 Total water withdrawals (Km3/year) including sectoral breakdown at national level (agriculture, municipalities, industry) from 2000 to 2022 (Aquastats,2025) severe water stress by 2050 (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). Figure 1 illustrates short-term projections for 2030 under a pessimistic climate scenario (RCP 8.5). Currently, 220 million people (of which 180 million of them in the South and East Mediter- ranean) already experience water scarcity, making the region home to 60% of the world?s water-poor population. Many countries are under severe1 to extreme2 water stress, with consumption nearing or exceeding renewable water availability of na- tural water tanks. Agriculture alone accounts for over 70% of the total water withdrawals3 (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025), as shown in Chart 1 for most Mediterranean countries - except in parts of the Balkans, France, and Monaco, where municipal and industrial uses dominate. Picture 1 : Wetlands © Pexels 1 https://app.mapx.org/static.html?language=en&views=MX-3SGVD-VZ3XS-7UXYI&zoomToViews=true&p=0&b=0&z=4.903&lat=36.021&lng=21.432&t3d=false&sat=false&theme=color_light&globe=false https://app.mapx.org/static.html?language=en&views=MX-3SGVD-VZ3XS-7UXYI&zoomToViews=true&p=0&b=0&z=4.903&lat=36.021&lng=21.432&t3d=false&sat=false&theme=color_light&globe=false https://app.mapx.org/static.html?language=en&views=MX-3SGVD-VZ3XS-7UXYI&zoomToViews=true&p=0&b=0&z=4.903&lat=36.021&lng=21.432&t3d=false&sat=false&theme=color_light&globe=false 2 Chart 1: Water Withdrawal per sector in 2022 in percentage. Figure 1: Projected change in water stress (RCP 8.5) 2030 4 4 With the goal of producing information for decadal-scale planning, adaptation, and investment, the Aqueduct Water Stress Projections model potential changes in future demand and supply of water over the next 3 de- cades. Global indicators were developed for water demand (withdrawal and consumptive use), water supply, water stress (the ratio of water withdrawal to supply), and intra-annual (seasonal) variability for the periods centered on 2020, 2030, and 2040 for each of 2 climate scenarios, RCP4.5 (accessible on MapX also) and RCP8.5 (link), and 2 shared socioeconomic pathways, SSP2 and SSP3. Source: Plan Bleu Observatory 2 https://app.mapx.org/static.html?language=en&views=MX-06I8P-A2V1A-9PD7I&zoomToViews=true&useMaxBounds=true&p=0&b=0&n=46.196&s=23.015&e=51.516&w=-8.653&t3d=false&sat=false&theme=water_light https://app.mapx.org/?project=MX-R2F-467-2PL-J9H-CCR&language=en&theme=color_light 4 Two paradoxes underpin the water scarcity crisis in the Mediterranean: The first lies in the coexistence of increasing water demand and declining freshwater availability. Climate projections indicate that for each degree of warming, annual precipitation could drop by 4%, potentially re- ducing freshwater resources by 10% by 2050 (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). Figure 1 also illustrates that regions are projected to experience a twofold or grea- ter increase in water scarcity by 2030, predominantly in coastal and densely populated urban and peri-urban areas - where demand is already high. To address dimi- nishing water supplies, many countries have invested in unconventional water resources, such as wastewa- ter treatment plants (WWTPs) and desalinisation tech- nologies. However, urban centers - particularly in the rapidly urbanizing southern Mediterranean - continue to face major infrastructure challenges. In numerous cities over 10,000 inhabitants, WWTPs are often still under development. These systems require conti- nuous maintenance, and without adequate support, they can contribute to environmental degradation and the spread of emerging contaminants that threaten ecosystems and public health (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). Desalination, while increasingly adopted to off- set freshwater deficits, remains energy-intensive and poses socio-economic and environmental impacts that may undermine its long-term viability and scalability.5 The second paradox lies in the simultaneous occur- rence of chronic water shortages and acute water surpluses linked to seasonal hydrological extremes (Plan Bleu - MED2050, 2025). Droughts are becoming more frequent and intense, yet are often followed by short, extreme rainfall that overwhelms infrastructure and triggers flash floods. This duality poses complex challenges for water resource management, particu- larly in urban areas. In response, Mediterranean coun- tries have traditionally relied on grey infrastructure, including dikes, river embankments, and retention ba- sins, to mitigate flood risks. While these solutions have provided critical protection, they may no longer suffice under the increasing unpredictability and intensity of climate-related events. These patterns are further exacerbated by sea le- vel rise and saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers, which not only hinder aquifer recharge but also dete- riorate water quality through salinization and pollution. As a result, both water security - due to reduced quan- tity and quality - and urban resilience - due to rising food risks and infrastructure strain - are increasingly 5 For further information on désalinisation (link). 6 GEF MedProgramme SCCF Project (link). threatened. These shared challenges highlight the need for greater regional cooperation and investment in sustainable, environmentally friendly water and sa- nitation solutions. In this context, Nature-based Solutions (NbS) emerge as sustainable and integrated responses in regard to conventional grey infrastructure solutions. Based on natural processes, NbS helps - among a whole range of additional benefits (e.g. socio-economic and environmental) - restore ecological functions while addressing concrete water challenges. From restored coastal marshes that buffer erosion, to river corridors designed to contain floods, to urban wetlands that filter and reuse wastewater, these approaches have proven effective - provided they are well-planned, integrated, and socially accepted. 2- Paper Methodology Based on the IUCN Global Standards for NbS - par- ticularly inclusive governance (Criterion 5), balanced trade-offs (C 6), adaptive management (C 7), and long- term policy integration (C 8) - this publication present a synthesis of six case studies from across the Mediter- ranean (Morocco, France, Italy, Albania, Egypt, Spain), as presented in Plan Bleu?s publication Nature-Based Solutions for Mediterranean Cities (2024). These cases illustrate diverse NbS for urban and coastal water management. Despite varied contexts, all projects share a core approach: restoring or catalyzing natu- ral processes to enhance water resilience and deliver co-benefits for nearby ecosystems, communities, and economies. By examining effective NbS practices and outcomes, this synthesis demonstrates their potential to guide sustainable urban water strategies. 3- Key pillars for making NbS a success : Governance, Planning, and Participation These three pillars emerged consistently across the six cases studies and are further supported by another Plan Bleu report developed under the GEF MedPro- gramme SCCF Project, which highlights institutional coordination, long-term planning, and stakeholder engagement as key enablers to effective NbS im- plementation.6 The case studies show that NbS are most successful when embedded within operational frameworks that integrate social, institutional, econo- mic, and technical dimension. 3 https://planbleu.org/publications/couts-economiques-dessalement-mediterranee/ https://planbleu.org/en/publications/nature-based-solutions-and-ecosystem-based-adaptation-in-the-mediterranean/ 5 Picture 2 : Boukhalef wastewater treatment plant operated by Amendis. © Maquet (2020) 3.1 - Collaborative governance and inclusion: Effective NbS governance requires coordination across local, regional, and national levels, involving public ins- titutions, private actors, researchers, and civil society to enhance social acceptance. Three case studies have been shown effective for their governance model and active participation of different stakeholders. In Tangier, the Boukhalef Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) showcases a large-scale NbS contributing to urban water resilience by treating and reusing was- tewater in one of Morocco?s rainiest regions (Picture 2). Originally commissioned in 2015 with a capacity of 10,700m3/day, the facility was expanded to 42,700m3/ day in 2020 - saving an estimated 3 million m3 of wa- ter annually. Treated water has been reused for urban green space management. The success of this project can be largely attributed to the effective multi stakehol- der governance framework and the allocation of res- ponsibilities among a range of public and private ac- tors. This institutional collaboration ensured long-term operational sustainability along with a cost-recovery pricing support (water supplying at USD 0.27/m3). In other parts of the Mediterranean, experiences from the EU-funded Adapto (2017-2021) project in Hyères (France) and the ADAPT pilot project (2019-2024) in Elbasan (Albania) have highlighted how collaborative, multi-level governance combined with meaningful pu- blic participation and inclusion is critical to the success of NbS projects. Understanding local needs and perceptions requires an initial diagnostic phase using surveys, interviews, or focus groups. Where skepticism exists, clear com- munication helps foster ownership and support. In Hyères for example (Picture 3), the project coordinated by the Conservatoire du Littoral, sought to restore a degraded coastal ecosystem by removing industrial rock defenses and re-establishing natural dune and underwater vegetation (e.g. Posidonia meadows) to fix the seabed and reduce coastal erosion. Successfully, the design was based on a strong and sensitive diagno- sis of sites?users (consultation, perceptions of safety, local attachment) where social buy-in was facilitated by participatory tools and community outreach to sup- port social acceptance (post project surveys: 54% of population in favour of implemented actions). Hence, site users identified the most effective communication tools for raising awareness about coastal adaptation to climate change as information panels (43%), municipal communication (22%), and local press (21%). Virtual si- mulations (10%), and specialized media (7%) were seen as less effective. Success in the Elbasan project has also been reached through strong educational and outreach initiatives that strengthened local awareness, promotion of al- ternative livelihoods to reinforce community resilience. The project focuses on reducing erosion and flood risks in the Shkumbini River basin through forest restoration (8.5 ha) and the development of sustainable grazing and livelihoods (e.g., agro-tourism). A participatory ap- proach involving local and national stakeholders, inclu- ding women and vulnerables groups, shaped the de- 4 Picture 3 : Hyères Old Salt Mines - Pond and pine forest of l?Anglais. ©Larrey. Adapto. (n.d.). sign of context-specific NbS and long-term ownership. Socio-economic co-benefits for over 1000 households reinforced community resilience. 3.2 - Planning NbS: The long-term success of NbS for water and flood ma- nagement depends on their integration into coherent planning strategies that span across spatial and policy scales. NbS reach their full potential when embedded within broader urban, territorial and watershed mana- gement frameworks, supported by diagnostics, spatial coherence, and adaptive management. Their effec- tiveness is further enhanced when aligned with the objectives of international and regional environmental strategies and frameworks?such as the Sustainable Development Goals, the EU Water Resilience Strategy, the Nature Restoration Regulation, and relevant Medi- terranean Action Plan protocols. Multi-level integra- tion not only ensures the durability and performance of NbS, but also promotes policy coherence and collective progress toward shared sustainability goals. In 2023, a collaboration between the University of Cairo and three foreign universities yielded propo- sals to address the frequent flooding suffered by the metropolitan area of Alexandria through the strategic deployment of several small-scaled NbS integrated within the city Sustainable Drainage Systems7 (SUDS) and broader urban land-use frameworks. A detailed hydrological assessment guided the spatial integra- tion of context-specific NbS - including bioretention 7 Sustainable Drainage systems are urban water management methods that mimic natural hydrology to control runoff, reduce discharge volume, and improve water quality, helping protect natural water bodies. basins, rain gardens, wetland ponds, and permeable pavements - across diverse urban landscapes. Stren- gthening urban resilience by embedding NbS into long- term planning and zoning regulations has been key to the success of the project. In Barcelona, the Llobregat River Park (Picture 4) - launched in 2007 - represents a flagship long-term initiative for river restoration and climate adaptation. The project integrates multiple NbS, including water reuse infrastructures within a strategic water cycle plan, the demolition of a concrete ditch transformed into a vegetated one, bioengineered riverbanks, erosion control measures, and native species reforestation. Key component of the success is the integration of the pro- ject into regional planning frameworks, an assiduous ecological monitoring (by LIFE UrbanGreeningPlans initiative), the use of adaptive management based on ecological performance and a very efficient mainte- nance. Maintenance has been identified as critical to sustained NbS performance (in over 80% of assessed cases). In Cagliari, Sardinia, the EcoSistema Filtro (ESF) - a constructed wetland established in 2004 within the Molentargius-Saline Nature Reserve (Picture 5) - de- monstrates how NbS can support urban redevelopment and conservation goals through a broader land-use strategy to avoid conflicts between users and reduce pressures on environment, but also a long-term opera- tional sustainability through public access limitations and reinforced cooperation between stakeholders. De- 5 signed to treat wastewater through natural filtration, the ESF contributes to improve environmental and socio-cultural features with a successful management planning. On the international stage, ambitious wetland restora- tion initiatives are gaining momentum, exemplified by the EU Horizon 2020 WaterLANDS project. This initiative, in which Plan Bleu contributed to the development of a Theoretical Governance Framework8, demonstrated how aligning governance with appro- priate funding schemes and coherent policy frameworks are crucial to upscaling wetland restoration as NbS for climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction and water resilience across Europe. 8 Terrisse, A., Karner, M., Kaufmann, J., & Ernoul, L. (2025). Characterizing governance models for upscaling wetland restoration. Environmental Management, 75(5), 1155?1167. 9 From Plan Bleus? publication Nature-Based Solutions for Mediterranean Cities (2024). 4- NbS efficiency for water-related challenges Table 1 compares and illustrates the effectiveness of each NbS to water-related problems. The case studies show varying levels of ecosystem service delivery, from targeted benefits to broader multifunctionality. Some, like in Elbasan, prioritize flood control, while others, like Hyères, combine water purification, decontamina- tion processes and soil improvements. The classifica- tion9 into main, side, or low/no services helps highlight these differences. Overall, the table reflects how NbS can be tailored to local priorities while offering co-be- nefits. Picture 4 : Regenerated water use system through canals in the meander of Sant Joan Despí, 2011© Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona. (n.d.). Picture 5 : Parco Naturale di Molentargius e saline - Cagliari. ©LeniKovaleva. Sardegna Turismo (2015) 6 https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00267-025-02132-2.pdf https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00267-025-02132-2.pdf 5- Nbs co-benefits and cost-effectiveness NbS for water and flood risk management offer a range of co-benefits that extend well beyond their primary functions. They contribute to improved water quality, enhanced biodiversity, and increased social cohesion by creating healthier and more attractive public spaces with recreational value. A recently publi- shed study shows that natural solutions, such as dune restoration, Posidonia oceanica seagrass replanting and beach nourishment, can reduce urban flooding during extreme events by 78% (Marino et al. 2025). In the Pantani della Sicilia Sud-Orientale lagoon case study, researchers simulated future scenarios using advanced hydrodynamic models combined with habi- tat mapping, confirming once again NbS as effective, scalable, and sustainable tools to protect coasts from climate change. From an economic perspective, NbS often outperform traditional infrastructure in terms of cost-effective- ness10 over their lifecycle. Although they may not fully address large-scale challenges - such as those obser- ved in Alexandria - NbS can reduce both capital and operational expenditures while minimizing negative externalities. Their integration with grey infrastructure 10 For more information see Plan Bleu?s work on Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) and Multi-Criteria-Analysis (MCA) for NbS in the frame of the SCCF Project (link). and enabling policy frameworks is essential for effec- tive flood and water management. Importantly, eco- system-based adaptation typically requires around 10 years to deliver measurable outcomes, underscoring the value of hybrid strategies that combine NbS with conventional and societal solutions. These hybrid approaches, which prioritize NbS where feasible, help optimize financial resources, attract green investments and climate finance, and offer sus- tainable options for both public and private stakehol- ders. They must be supported by complementary urban planning measures, including building regulations, land-use policies, and integrated development strate- gies. Among NbS, ecosystem restoration is particularly cost-effective. For instance, the restoration of coastal salt marshes in Hyères cost ¤840 000, with ¤700 000 in maintenance over 30 years - significantly less than traditional coastal defenses (¤2.4 million plus ¤3.1 million in maintenance) (Plan Bleu, 2024). Beyond cost savings, such interventions yield broader economic benefits: they support local tourism, create green jobs, enhance property values, and reduce disaster recovery costs, thereby strengthening community resilience. Table 1: NbS effectiveness for water-related challenges from the six case studies. Source: Adapted from Plan Bleu (2024). 7 https://planbleu.org/publications/etude-evaluation-solutions-adaptation-cotiere/ 6- Conclusion The six case studies presented here demonstrate that NbS long-term effectiveness and scalability depend on integration into long-term coherent policy and mul- ti-scale planning frameworks, supported by inclusive governance, stakeholder co-creation, continuous mo- nitoring and adaptive management. Cost-effectiveness - particularly in ecosystem restoration - reinforces their viability over conventional solutions while bringing cumulative co-benefits such as biodiversity restoration, flood regulation or water purification. However, NbS are inherently context-specific and require coordinated yet flexible approaches across governance levels. Unlocking the full potential of NbS requires the mo- bilization of innovative financing mechanisms, such as blended finance and public-private partnerships. Re- gional cooperation can facilitate pooled investment and risk-sharing, enhancing the attractiveness of large- scale NbS to institutional investors and development banks. In this regard, Plan Bleu/RAC, part of the UNEP/ MAP system, especially through the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD), are playing a key role in advancing research, dialogue, and pilot initiatives to build capacity and mobilize resources across the region. 7- Bibliography & Illustrations Adapto. (n.d.). Vieux Salins d?Hyères - adapto, un projet LIFE. Retrieved May 14, 2025, from https://www.lifea- dapto.eu/vieux-salins-d-hyeres.html Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona. (n.d.). Environmental and social impact of the nature-based solutions (NBS) implemented in the Llobregat river - Territori. Retrie- ved May 15, 2025, from https://www.amb.cat/web/ter- ritori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/ publicacions/detall/-/publicacio/environmental-and- social-impact-of-the-nature-based-solutions--nbs-- implemented/15538147/11696 Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (Eu- ropean Commission). (2025). Green Deal Call Projects Success Stories: scaling wetland restoration: innova- tive governance for long term resilience. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/ doi/10.2777/1472211 IUCN. (2020). IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions: first edition. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN. CH.2020.08.en Maquet, C. (2020). Wastewater reuse: a solution with a future. Field Actions Science Reports. The Journal of Field Actions, Special Issue 22, 64?69. https://journals. openedition.org/factsreports/6341?lang=en Marino, M., Baptist, M. J., Alkharoubi, A. I. K., Nasca, S., Cavallaro, L., Foti, E. & Musumeci, R. E. (2025). Nature-based Solutions as Building Blocks for coastal flood risk reduction: a model-based ecosystem service assessment. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 12070. https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95230-4 PANORAMA. (n.d.). Recommendations for an NbS pilot intervention in Elbasan Municipality, Albania, defined through the NbS Baseline Assessment of the Shkumbini River basin. Retrieved May 14, 2025, from https://panorama.solutions/en/solution/recommenda- tions-nbs-pilot-intervention-elbasan-municipality-al- bania-defined-through-nbs Plan Bleu. (2024, July). Solutions fondées sur la Nature pour les villes méditerranéennes. https://planbleu.org/ publications/solutions-fondees-sur-la-nature-pour- les-villes-mediterraneennes/ Plan Bleu. (2025). MED2050 pour une Méditerranée du- rable et résiliente. https://planbleu.org/publications/ la-mediterranee-a-lhorizon-2050/ 8 https://www.lifeadapto.eu/vieux-salins-d-hyeres.html https://www.lifeadapto.eu/vieux-salins-d-hyeres.html https://www.amb.cat/web/territori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/publicacions/detal https://www.amb.cat/web/territori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/publicacions/detal https://www.amb.cat/web/territori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/publicacions/detal https://www.amb.cat/web/territori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/publicacions/detal https://www.amb.cat/web/territori/espai-public/espais-fluvials/parc-riu-llobregat/publicacions/detal https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/1472211 https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/1472211 https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.08.en https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.08.en https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/6341?lang=en https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/6341?lang=en https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95230-4 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95230-4 https://panorama.solutions/en/solution/recommendations-nbs-pilot-intervention-elbasan-municipality-a https://panorama.solutions/en/solution/recommendations-nbs-pilot-intervention-elbasan-municipality-a https://panorama.solutions/en/solution/recommendations-nbs-pilot-intervention-elbasan-municipality-a https://planbleu.org/publications/solutions-fondees-sur-la-nature-pour-les-villes-mediterraneennes/ https://planbleu.org/publications/solutions-fondees-sur-la-nature-pour-les-villes-mediterraneennes/ https://planbleu.org/publications/solutions-fondees-sur-la-nature-pour-les-villes-mediterraneennes/ https://planbleu.org/publications/la-mediterranee-a-lhorizon-2050/ https://planbleu.org/publications/la-mediterranee-a-lhorizon-2050/ Plan Bleu. (n.d.). Variabilité des coûts économiques induits par le dessalement en Méditerranée. Retrieved May 14, 2025, from https://planbleu.org/publications/ couts-economiques-dessalement-mediterranee/ Sardegna Turismo. (2015, November 20). Le Parc de Molentargius - Saline. https://www.sardegnaturismo. it/fr/explorer/le-parc-de-molentargius-saline Terrisse, A., Karner, M., Kaufmann, J., & Ernoul, L. (2025). Characterizing governance models for upsca- ling wetland restoration. Environmental Management, 75(5), 1155?1167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025- 02132-2 VieuxSalins_RapportPerceptionSociale_2022_UE.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved May 14, 2025, from https://www.li- feadapto.eu/media/7702/VieuxSalins_RapportPercep- tionSociale_2022_UE.pdf Nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based adap- tation in the Mediterranean (2025, March) https:// planbleu.org/en/publications/nature-based-solu- tions-and-ecosystem-based-adaptation-in-the-medi- terranean/ 9 Disclaimer This note analyses Urban and Coastal Water Management through Nature-Based Solutions using data from multiple national and international sources. The results are subject to limitations related to data gaps and uneven spatial and temporal coverage. While standardized methods were applied to enhance consistency and robustness, users should interpret the findings with caution and, where relevant, complement them with additional scientific sources and local expertise The designations and material used in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP/MAP, Plan Bleu or contributing organizations con- cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city area or its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of UNEP/MAP, Plan Bleu or contributing organizations. Copyright This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational and non-profit purposes, without special permission from the copyright holder, provided the source is acknowledged. Plan Bleu would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication using this material as a source. This publication may not be used for resale or any other commercial purpose without the written permission of Plan Bleu. © YEAR 2026 Plan Bleu PLAN BLEU Regional Activity Centre of UN Environment/MAP Marseille, France planbleu@planbleu.org - www.planbleu.org Publishing Director: Antoine Lafitte Author: Aliki Sofos Contributors: Insa Behrens, Samson Bellières, Arnaud Terrisse, Constantin Tsakas and Alice Wittevrongel. Graphic Design : Christelle El Selfani & Saif Salmi Legal deposit : N° ISSN 2606 61 06 The document has been drafted with the financial support of Ademe and the FPA2 (Adapt-Pelagos project) https://planbleu.org/publications/couts-economiques-dessalement-mediterranee/ https://planbleu.org/publications/couts-economiques-dessalement-mediterranee/ https://www.sardegnaturismo.it/fr/explorer/le-parc-de-molentargius-saline https://www.sardegnaturismo.it/fr/explorer/le-parc-de-molentargius-saline https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02132-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02132-2 https://www.lifeadapto.eu/media/7702/VieuxSalins_RapportPerceptionSociale_2022_UE.pdf https://www.lifeadapto.eu/media/7702/VieuxSalins_RapportPerceptionSociale_2022_UE.pdf https://www.lifeadapto.eu/media/7702/VieuxSalins_RapportPerceptionSociale_2022_UE.pdf